Notwithstanding the Chatam Sofer, there are no treatments that I am aware of that work differently on Jews and non-Jews.
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There are, however, treatments that work differently on members of different races. I forgot which one in particular works differently for people of African origin – I think it is a blood pressure medication.
It would not surprise me that as we get further and further into genetic based treatments, there will be some that will work differently on many Jews versus many non-Jews based on our shared DNA.